Tetragrammaton

Open main menu Search EditWatch this pageRead in another language Tetragrammaton For other uses, see Tetragrammaton (disambiguation). "YHWH" redirects here. For the historic Iron Age deity, see Yahweh. The tetragrammaton in Phoenician (12th century BCE to 150 BCE), Paleo-Hebrew (10th century BCE to 135 CE), and square Hebrew (3rd century BCE to present) scripts The tetragrammaton (/ˌtɛtrəˈɡræmətɒn/; from Greek Τετραγράμματον, meaning "[consisting of] four letters"), יהוה‬ in Hebrew and YHWH in Latin script, is the four-letter biblical name of the God of Israel.[1][2] The books of the Torah and the rest of the Hebrew Bible (with the exception of Esther, and Song of Songs) contain this Hebrew name. Religiously observant Jews and those who follow conservative Jewish traditions do not pronounce יהוה‬, nor do they read aloud transliterated forms such as Yahweh; instead the word is substituted with a different term, whether used to address or to refer to the God of Israel. Common substitutions for Hebrew forms are hakadosh baruch hu ("The Holy One, Blessed Be He"), Adonai ("The Lord"),[3] or HaShem ("The Name"). Four letters Edit The letters, properly read from right to left (in Biblical Hebrew), are: Hebrew Letter name Pronunciation י‬ Yod [j] ה‬ He [h] ו‬ Waw [w], or placeholder for "O"/"U" vowel (see mater lectionis) ה‬ He [h] (or often a silent letter at the end of a word) Pronunciation Edit YHWH The pronunciation as it is vowel pointed in the Masoretic Text. The vast majority of scholars do not hold the pronunciation to be correct. Problems playing this file? See media help. YHWH and Hebrew script Edit Main article: Mater lectionis See also: Biblical Hebrew orthography, Hebrew diacritics, Tiberian vocalization, and Niqqud Transcription of the divine name as ΙΑΩ in the 1st-century BCE Septuagint manuscript 4Q120 The letters YHWH are consonantal semi-vowels. In unpointed Biblical Hebrew, most vowels are not written and the rest are written only ambiguously, as certain consonants can double as vowel markers (similar to the Latin use of V to indicate both U and V). These are referred to as matres lectionis ("mothers of reading"). Therefore, it is, in general, difficult to deduce how a word is pronounced only from its spelling, and the tetragrammaton is a particular example: two of its letters can serve as vowels, and two are vocalic place-holders, which are not pronounced. Thus the first-century Jewish historian and philosopher Josephus said that the sacred name of God consists of "four vowels".[4] The original consonantal text of the Hebrew Bible was, several centuries later, provided with vowel marks by the Masoretes to assist reading. In places that the consonants of the text to be read (the qere) differed from the consonants of the written text (the ketiv), they wrote the qere in the margin as a note showing what was to be read. In such a case the vowels of the qere were written on the ketiv. For a few frequent words, the marginal note was omitted: these are called qere perpetuum. One of the frequent cases was the tetragrammaton, which according to later Jewish practices should not be pronounced but read as "Adonai" ("My Lord"), or, if the previous or next word already was Adonai, as "Elohim" ("God"). The combination produces יְהֹוָה and יֱהֹוִה respectively, non-words that would spell "Yehovah" and "Yehovih" respectively.[5][6] The oldest complete or nearly complete manuscripts of the Masoretic Text with Tiberian vocalisation, such as the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, both of the 10th or 11th century, mostly write יְהוָה‬ (yhwah), with no pointing on the first h. It could be because the o diacritic point plays no useful role in distinguishing between Adonai and Elohim and so is redundant, or it could point to the qere being Shema, which is Aramaic for "the Name". Adonai Edit The spelling of the tetragrammaton and connected forms in the Hebrew Masoretic text of the Bible, with vowel points shown in red The vocalisations of יְהֹוָה (Yehovah) and אֲדֹנָי (Adonai) are not identical. The shva in YHWH (the vowel "ְ "‬ under the first letter) and the hataf patakh in 'DNY (the vowel "ֲ "‬ under its first letter) appear different. The vocalisation can be attributed to Biblical Hebrew phonology,[7] where the hataf patakh is grammatically identical to a shva, always replacing every shva naḥ under a guttural letter. Since the first letter of אֲדֹנָי is a guttural letter while the first letter of יְהֹוָה is not, the hataf patakh under the (guttural) aleph reverts to a regular shva under the (non-guttural) Yod. The table below considers the vowel points for יְהֹוָה (Yehovah) and אֲדֹנָי (Adonai), respectively: Hebrew word No. 3068 YEHOVAH יְהֹוָה Hebrew word No. 136 ADONAY אֲדֹנָי י‬ Yod Y א‬ Aleph glottal stop ְ‬ Simple Shewa e ֲ‬ Hataf Patakh A ה‬ Heh H ד‬ Daleth D ֹ‬ Holem O ֹ‬ Holem O ו‬ Waw W נ‬ Nun N ָ‬ Kametz A ָ‬ Kametz A ה‬ Heh H י‬ Yod Y In the table directly above, the "simple shewa" in Yehovah and the hataf patakh in Adonai are not the same vowel. The difference being, the "simple shewa" is an "a" sound as in "alone", whereas the hataf patakh is more subtle, as the "a" in "father". The same information is displayed in the table above and to the right, where YHWH is intended to be pronounced as Adonai, and Adonai is shown to have different vowel points. Yahweh Edit Main article: Yahweh Wilhelm Gesenius's Hebrew punctuation (i.e., Yahweh) Tetragrammaton (with the vowel points for Adonai) on a Wittenberg University debate lectern The Hebrew scholar Wilhelm Gesenius [1786–1842] suggested that the Hebrew punctuation יַהְוֶה, which is transliterated into English as "Yahweh", might more accurately represent the pronunciation of the tetragrammaton than the Biblical Hebrew punctuation "יְהֹוָה", from which the English name "Jehovah" has been derived. His proposal to read YHWH as "יַהְוֶה‬" (see image to the left) was based in large part on various Greek transcriptions, such as ιαβε, dating from the first centuries CE but also on the forms of theophoric names. In his Hebrew Dictionary, Gesenius supports "Yahweh" (which would have been pronounced [jahwe], with the final letter being silent) because of the Samaritan pronunciation Ιαβε reported by Theodoret, and that the theophoric name prefixes YHW [jeho] and YH [jo] can be explained from the form "Yahweh".[8] Gesenius' proposal to read YHWH as יַהְוֶה‬ is accepted as the best scholarly reconstructed vocalised Hebrew spelling of the tetragrammaton.[9] Theophoric names Edit Main article: Theophory in the Bible § Yah theophory Yeho or "Yehō-" is the prefix form of "YHWH" used in Hebrew theophoric names; the suffix form "Yahū" or "-Yehū" is just as common, which has caused two opinions: In former times (at least from c.1650 CE), the prefix pronunciation "Yehō-" was sometimes connected with the full pronunciation "Yehova", derived from combining the Masoretic vowel points for "Adonai" with the consonantal tetragrammaton YHWH. Recently, as "Yahweh" is likely an imperfective verb form, "Yahu" is its corresponding preterite or jussive short form: compare yiŝtahaweh (imperfective), yiŝtáhû (preterit or jussive short form) = "do obeisance".[10] The first argument is believed by George Wesley Buchanan in Biblical Archaeology Review; Smith's 1863 A Dictionary of the Bible;[11] Section # 2.1 The Analytical Hebrew & Chaldee Lexicon (1848)[12] in its article הוה. The second argument is supported on grammatical grounds because shortening to "Yahw" would end up as "Yahu" or something similar, and forms like Yo (יוֹ‬) contracted from Yeho (יְהוֹ‬) and the suffix "-yah",[13] as well as "Yeho-" or "Yo"[14] can most readily be explained as derivatives of "Yahweh" rather than from "Yehovah". Textual evidence Edit Mesha Stele Edit The Mesha Stele bears the earliest known reference (840 BCE) to the Israelite God Yahweh. The oldest known inscription of the tetragrammaton dates to 840 BCE, on the Mesha Stele. It bears the earliest certain extra-biblical reference to the Israelite God Yahweh.[15] The most recent discovery of a tetragrammaton inscription, dating to the 6th century BCE, was found written in Hebrew on two silver scrolls recovered from Jerusalem.[1] Scholarly texts of the Hebrew Bible Edit In the Hebrew Bible, the tetragrammaton occurs 6828 times,[1]:142 as can be seen in the Biblia Hebraica and Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. In addition, on the margins there are notes (masorah[note 1]) indicating that in 134 places the soferim (Jewish scribes) altered the original Hebrew text from YHWH to Adonai[16][note 2][17][18] and 8 places to Elohim,[19] which would add 142 occurrences to the initial number above.[20] According to Brown–Driver–Briggs, יְהֹוָה (Qr אֲדֹנָי) occurs 6,518 times, and יֱהֹוִה (Qr אֱלֹהִים) occurs 305 times in the Masoretic Text. It first appears in Hebrew in the Book of Genesis 2:4.[21] The only books it does not appear in are Ecclesiastes, the Book of Esther, and Song of Songs.[1] In the Book of Esther the Tetragrammaton does not appear, but it is present in four complex acrostics in Hebrew: the initial or last letters of four consecutive words, either forwards or backwards comprise YHWH. These letters were distinguished in at least three ancient Hebrew manuscripts in red.[22][note 3] Another acrostic containing the Tetragrammaton also composed the first four words of Psalm 96:11.[23] Short form Jah occurs 50 times:[24] 43 times in the Psalms, one in Exodus 15:2; 17:16; Isaiah 12:2; 26:4, and twice in Isaiah 38:11. It also appears in the Greek phrase Ἁλληλουϊά (hallelujah) in Revelation 19:1–6. God's name is also found in the Bible as a component in theophoric Hebrew names. Some may have had at the beginning of the form: jô- or jehô- (29 names), and the other at the end: jāhû- or jāh- (127 names). One name is a form of jehô as the second syllable (Elioenaj, hebr. ʼelj(eh)oʻenaj[25]). Onomastic Studies indicate that theophoric names containing the Tetragrammaton were very popular during the monarchy (8th–7th centuries BCE).[note 4] The popular names with the prefix jô-/jehô- diminished, while the suffix jāhû-/jāh- increased.[26] The Septuagint typically translates YHWH as kyrios "Lord".[1] Below are the number of occurrences of the Tetragrammaton in various books in the Masoretic Text.[27] Leningrad Codex Edit Six Hebrew spellings of the tetragrammaton are found in the Leningrad Codex of 1008–1010, as shown below. The entries in the Close Transcription column are not intended to indicate how the name was intended to be pronounced by the Masoretes, but only how the word would be pronounced if read without qere perpetuum. Chapter and verse Hebrew spelling Close transcription Ref. Explanation Genesis 2:4 יְהוָה Yǝhwāh [28] This is the first occurrence of the tetragrammaton in the Hebrew Bible and shows the most common set of vowels used in the Masoretic text. It is the same as the form used in Genesis 3:14 below, but with the dot over the holam/waw left out, because it is a little redundant. Genesis 3:14 יְהֹוָה Yǝhōwāh [29] This is a set of vowels used rarely in the Masoretic text, and are essentially the vowels from Adonai (with the hataf patakh reverting to its natural state as a shewa). Judges 16:28 יֱהֹוִה Yĕhōwih [30] When the tetragrammaton is preceded by Adonai, it receives the vowels from the name Elohim instead. The hataf segol does not revert to a shewa because doing so could lead to confusion with the vowels in Adonai. Genesis 15:2 יֱהוִה Yĕhwih [31] Just as above, this uses the vowels from Elohim, but like the second version, the dot over the holam/waw is omitted as redundant. 1 Kings 2:26 יְהֹוִה Yǝhōwih [32] Here, the dot over the holam/waw is present, but the hataf segol does get reverted to a shewa. Ezekiel 24:24 יְהוִה Yǝhwih [33] Here, the dot over the holam/waw is omitted, and the hataf segol gets reverted to a shewa. ĕ is hataf segol; ǝ is the pronounced form of plain shva. The o diacritic dot over the letter waw is often omitted because it plays no useful role in distinguishing between the two intended pronunciations Adonai and Elohim (which both happen to have an o vowel in the same position).[citation needed] Dead Sea Scrolls Edit In the Dead Sea Scrolls and other Hebrew and Aramaic texts the tetragrammaton and some other names of God in Judaism (such as El or Elohim) were sometimes written in paleo-Hebrew script, showing that they were treated specially. Most of God's names were pronounced until about the 2nd century BCE. Then, as a tradition of non-pronunciation of the names developed, alternatives for the tetragrammaton appeared, such as Adonai, Kurios and Theos.[34] The 4Q120, a Greek fragment of Leviticus (26:2–16) discovered in the Dead Sea scrolls (Qumran) has ιαω ("Iao"), the Greek form of the Hebrew trigrammaton YHW.[35] The historian John the Lydian (6th century) wrote: "The Roman Varo [116–27 BCE] defining him [that is the Jewish god] says that he is called Iao in the Chaldean mysteries" (De Mensibus IV 53). Van Cooten mentions that Iao is one of the "specifically Jewish designations for God" and "the Aramaic papyri from the Jews at Elephantine show that 'Iao' is an original Jewish term".[36][37] The preserved manuscripts from Qumran show the inconsistent practice of writing the tetragrammaton, mainly in biblical quotations: in some manuscripts is written in paleo-Hebrew script, square scripts or replaced with four dots or dashes (tetrapuncta). The members of the Qumran community were aware of the existence of the tetragrammaton, but this was not tantamount to granting consent for its existing use and speaking. This is evidenced not only by special treatment of the tetragrammaton in the text, but by the recommendation recorded in the 'Rule of Association' (VI, 27): "Who will remember the most glorious name, which is above all [...]".[38] The table below presents all the manuscripts in which the tetragrammaton is written in paleo-Hebrew script,[note 5] in square scripts, and all the manuscripts in which the copyists have used tetrapuncta. Copyists used the 'tetrapuncta' apparently to warn against pronouncing the name of God.[39] In the manuscript number 4Q248 is in the form of bars. PALEO-HEBREW SQUARE TETRAPUNCTA 1Q11 (1QPsb) 2–5 3 (link: [1]) 2Q13 (2QJer) (link: [2]) 1QS VIII 14 (link: [3]) 1Q14 (1QpMic) 1–5 1, 2 (link: [4]) 4Q27 (4QNumb) (link: [5]) 1QIsaa XXXIII 7, XXXV 15 (link: [6]) 1QpHab VI 14; X 7, 14; XI 10 (link: [7]) 4Q37 (4QDeutj) (link: [8]) 4Q53 (4QSamc) 13 III 7, 7 (link: [9]) 1Q15 (1QpZeph) 3, 4 (link: [10]) 4Q78 (4QXIIc) (link: [11]) 4Q175 (4QTest) 1, 19 2Q3 (2QExodb) 2 2; 7 1; 8 3 (link: [12] [13]) 4Q96 (4QPso (link: [14]) 4Q176 (4QTanḥ) 1–2 i 6, 7, 9; 1–2 ii 3; 8–10 6, 8, 10 (link: [15]) 3Q3 (3QLam) 1 2 (link: [16]) 4Q158 (4QRPa) (link: [17]) 4Q196 (4QpapToba ar) 17 i 5; 18 15 (link: [18]) 4Q20 (4QExodj) 1–2 3 (link: [19]) 4Q163 (4Qpap pIsac) I 19; II 6; 15–16 1; 21 9; III 3, 9; 25 7 (link: [20]) 4Q248 (history of the kings of Greece) 5 (link: [21]) 4Q26b (4QLevg) linia 8 (link: [22]) 4QpNah (4Q169) II 10 (link: [23]) 4Q306 (4QMen of People Who Err) 3 5 (link: [24]) 4Q38a (4QDeutk2) 5 6 (link: [25]) 4Q173 (4QpPsb) 4 2 (link: [26]) 4Q382 (4QparaKings et al.) 9+11 5; 78 2 4Q57 (4QIsac) (link: [27]) 4Q177 (4QCatena A) (link: [28]) 4Q391 (4Qpap Pseudo-Ezechiel) 36, 52, 55, 58, 65 (link: [29]) 4Q161 (4QpIsaa) 8–10 13 (link: [30]) 4Q215a (4QTime of Righteousness) (link: [31]) 4Q462 (4QNarrative C) 7; 12 (link: [32]) 4Q165 (4QpIsae) 6 4 (link: [33]) 4Q222 (4QJubg) (link: [34]) 4Q524 (4QTb)) 6–13 4, 5 (link: [35]) 4Q171 (4QpPsa) II 4, 12, 24; III 14, 15; IV 7, 10, 19 (link: [36]) 4Q225 (4QPsJuba) (link: [37]) XḤev/SeEschat Hymn (XḤev/Se 6) 2 7 11Q2 (11QLevb) 2 2, 6, 7 (link: [38]) 4Q365 (4QRPc) (link: [39]) 11Q5 (11QPsa)[40] (link: [40]) 4Q377 (4QApocryphal Pentateuch B) 2 ii 3, 5 (link: [41]) 4Q382 (4Qpap paraKings) (link: [42]) 11Q6 (11QPsb) (link: [43]) 11Q7 (11QPsc) (link: [44]) 11Q19 (11QTa) 11Q20 (11QTb) (link: [45]) 11Q11 (11QapocrPs) (link: [46]) The occurrence of the Tetragrammaton in some manuscripts at Qumran Edit The date of composition is an estimate according to Peter Muchowski, as found in "Commentaries to the Manuscripts of the Dead Sea" by Emanuel Tov in "Scribal Practices and Approaches, Reflected in the Texts Found in the Judean Desert". Manuscripts in blue have written the Tetragrammaton in tetrapuncta Manuscripts in green have written the Tetragrammaton in paleo-Hebrew Manuscripts in red have written the Tetragrammaton in square characters The numbers on the horizontal line are the approximate year the manuscripts was produced. Magical papyri Edit The spellings of the tetragrammaton occur among the many combinations and permutations of names of powerful agents that occur in Jewish magical papyri found in Egypt.[41] One of these forms is the heptagram ιαωουηε.[42] In the Jewish magical papyri, Iave and Iαβα Yaba occurs frequently.[14] Yawe is found in an Ethiopian Christian list of magical names of Jesus, purporting to have been taught by him to his disciples.[14] Septuagint and other Greek translations Edit Tetragrammaton written in paleo-Hebrew script on 8HevXII The oldest complete Septuagint (B, א, A) versions from fourth century onwards consistently use Κύριος ("Lord"),[43] or Θεός ("God"),[44][45] where the Hebrew has YHWH, corresponding to substituting Adonai for YHWH in reading the original. The use of Κύριος for translating YHWH was not common in LXX manuscripts before that time.[46] In books written in Greek (e.g., Wisdom, 2 and 3 Maccabees), as in the New Testament, Κύριος takes the place of the name of God. However, the oldest fragments had the tetragrammaton in Hebrew or Paleo-Hebrew characters,[47] with the exception of P. Ryl. 458 (perhaps the oldest extant Septuagint manuscript) where there are blank spaces, leading some scholars such as Colin Henderson Roberts to believe that it contained letters.[48] According to Paul E. Kahle, the tetragrammaton must have been written in the manuscript where these breaks or blank spaces appear.[49] Albert Pietersma claim that P. Ryl. 458 is not important for their discussion of tetragrammaton, but he mentions it for ancient and for one surmise, since, all the contemporary ancient manuscripts present any form of divine name.[50] Other oldest fragments of manuscripts cannot be used in discussions because, in addition to its small text and its fragmentary condition, it does not include any Hebrew Bible verses where the Tetragrammaton appears (i.e. 4Q119, 4Q121, 4Q122, 7Q5). The claim that 4Q126 has Κύριος is implausible, because its text is unidentified,[51] appearing this title (Kyrios) replacing the divine name from the third century onwards (i.e. P.Oxy656, P.Oxy1075 and P.Oxy1166).[52] 4Q126 is not considered a biblical manuscript. Throughout the Septuagint as now known, the word Κύριος (Kyrios) without the definite article is used to represent the divine name, but it is uncertain whether this was the Septuagint's original rendering.[53] Origen (Commentary on Psalms 2.2) and Jerome (Prologus Galeatus) said that in their time the best manuscripts gave not the word Κύριος but the tetragrammaton itself written in an older form of the Hebrew characters.[54] No Jewish manuscript of the Septuagint has been found with Κύριος representing the tetragrammaton, and it has been argued, but not widely accepted, that the use of Κύριος shows that later copies of the Septuagint were of Christian character,[55] and even that the composition of the New Testament preceded the change to Κύριος in the Septuagint.[56] Its consistent use of Κύριος to represent the tetragrammaton has been called "a distinguishing mark for any Christian LXX manuscript",[57] However, a passage recorded in the Hebrew Tosefta, Shabbat 13:5 (written c. 300 CE), quoting Tarfon (who lived between 70 and 135 CE) is sometimes cited to suggest that early Christian writings or copies contained the Tetragrammaton.[58] In earliest copies of the Septuagint, the tetragrammaton in either Hebrew or paleo-Hebrew letters is used. The tetragrammaton occurs in the following texts: Papyrus Rylands 458 – contains fragments of Deuteronomy. Has blank spaces where the copyist probably had to write the tetragrammaton. It has been dated to 2nd century BCE. Papyrus Fouad 266b (848) – contains fragments of Deuteronomy, chapters 10 to 33, dated to 1st century BCE.[59] Apparently the first copyist left a blank space and marked with a dot, and the other inscribed letters, but not all scholars agree to this view. Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 3522 – contains chapter 42 of the Book of Job and the tetragrammaton written in paleo-Hebrew letters. It has been dated to the 1st century BCE. 8HevXII gr – dated to the 1st century CE, includes three fragments published separately. Se2grXII (LXXIEJ 12) has Tetragrammaton in 1 place 8HevXII a (LXXVTS 10a) in 24 places, whole or in part. 8HevXII b (LXXVTS 10b) in 4 places. Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 5101 – contains fragments of the Book of Psalms. It has been dated between year 50 and 150 CE 4QpapLXXLevb – contains fragments of the Book of Leviticus, chapters 1 to 5. In two verses: 3:12; 4:27 the tetragrammaton appears in the form ΙΑΩ. This manuscript is dated to the 1st century BCE. Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 656 – containing fragments of the Book of Genesis, chapters 14 to 27. A second copyist wrote Kyrios. It is dated to the late 2nd or early 3rd century CE. Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1007 – this manuscript in vitela form contains Genesis 2 and 3. The divine name is written with a double yodh. It has been assigned palaeographically to the 3rd century. Papyrus Berlin 17213 – containing fragments of the Book of Genesis, chapter 19. Contains a blank space for the name of God apparently, although Emanuel Tov thinks that it is a free space ending paragraph.[60] It has been dated to 3rd century CE. Taylor-Schechter 16.320 – tetragrammaton in Hebrew, 550 – 649 CE. Codex Marchalianus – has the divine name on marginal notes in Greek letters ΠΙΠΙ, and is the only another manuscripts with ΙΑΩ. It is a 6th-century Greek manuscript. Taylor-Schechter 12.182 – a Hexapla manuscript with tetragrammaton in Greek letters ΠΙΠΙ. It is from 7th-century. Ambrosiano O 39 sup. – the latest Greek manuscript containing the name of God is Origen's Hexapla, transmitting among other translations the text of the Septuagint. This codex comes from the late 9th century, and is stored in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana. In some earlier Greek copies of the Bible translated in the 2nd century CE by Symmachus and Aquila of Sinope, the tetragrammaton occurs. The following manuscripts contain the divine name: Papyrus Vindobonensis Greek 39777, the P.Vindob.G.39777 – dated to late 3rd century or beginning 4th century. AqTaylor, this is a Septuagint manuscript dated after the middle of the 5th century, but not later than the beginning of the 6th century. AqBurkitt – a palimpsest manuscript of the Septuagint dated late 5th century or early 6th century. Sidney Jellicoe concluded that "Kahle is right in holding that LXX [Septuagint] texts, written by Jews for Jews, retained the divine name in Hebrew Letters (paleo-Hebrew or Aramaic) or in the Greek-letters imitative form ΠΙΠΙ, and that its replacement by Κύριος was a Christian innovation".[61] Jellicoe draws together evidence from a great many scholars (B. J. Roberts, Baudissin, Kahle and C. H. Roberts) and various segments of the Septuagint to draw the conclusions that the absence of "Adonai" from the text suggests that the insertion of the term Kyrios was a later practice; in the Septuagint Kyrios is used to substitute YHWH; and the tetragrammaton appeared in the original text, but Christian copyists removed it.[citation needed] Eusebius and Jerome (translator of the Vulgate) used the Hexapla. Both attest to the importance of the sacred Name and that some manuscripts of Septuagint contained the tetragrammaton in Hebrew letters.[citation needed][62][63][64] This is further affirmed by The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, which states "Recently discovered texts doubt the idea that the translators of the LXX (Septuagint) have rendered the tetragrammaton JHWH with KYRIOS. The most ancient available manuscripts of the LXX have the tetragrammaton written in Hebrew letters in the Greek text. This was a custom preserved by the later Hebrew translator of the Old Testament in the first centuries (after Christ)"[65] New Testament Edit Main article: Tetragrammaton in the New Testament No Greek manuscript of the New Testament uses the tetragrammaton.[66]:77 In all its quotations of Old Testament texts that have the tetragrammaton in Hebrew the New Testament uses the Greek word Κύριος (Kyrios). However, within the New Testament the name that the tetragrammaton represents underlies the names of some of the people mentioned (such as Zachary and Elijah), and the name appears in the abbreviated form Yah in the Greek phrase Ἁλληλουϊά (hallelujah) in Revelation 19:1–6. In 1977, Professor George Howard in the pages of the Journal of Biblical Literature published a thesis of the presence of the Tetragrammaton in the biblical quotations cited by the writers of the New Testament,[66] giving two sets of evidence: In pre-Christian manuscripts of the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible was left Tetragrammaton (Papyrus Fouad 266; fragments of the scroll 8HevXII gr, (LXXVTS 10a, LXXVTS 10b, Se2grXII) containing the Twelve Prophets found in Nahal Hever, 4QLXXLevb) and other Jewish translations of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, represented by translations of Aquila, Theodotion and Symmachus; Nomina sacra (ΚΣ and ΘΣ) occurring in the early copies of the LXX in place of the Tetragrammaton, apparently created by the Christians of pagan origin. They knew Hebrew and it was difficult to them to save the Tetragrammaton. So they decided to use the shortened ΚΣ (κυριος – Lord) and ΘΣ (θεος – God), as to conform to the original spelling of the Tetragrammaton. It is not known whether and how this practice was influenced by the later trinitarian debates. Patristic writings Edit Petrus Alphonsi's early 12th-century Tetragrammaton-Trinity diagram, rendering the name as "IEVE" Tetragrammaton at the Fifth Chapel of the Palace of Versailles, France. This example has the vowel points of "Elohim". According to the Catholic Encyclopedia (1910) and B.D. Eerdmans:[67][68]:330 Diodorus Siculus (1st century BCE) writes[69] Ἰαῶ (Iao); Irenaeus (d. c. 202) reports[70] that the Gnostics formed a compound Ἰαωθ (Iaoth) with the last syllable of Sabaoth. He also reports[71] that the Valentinian heretics use Ἰαῶ (Iao); Clement of Alexandria (d. c. 215)[72] writes Ἰαοὺ (Iaou)—see also below; Origen (d. c. 254), Ἰαώ (Iao);[73] Porphyry (d. c. 305) according to Eusebius (died 339),[74] Ἰευώ (Ieuo); Epiphanius (died 404), who was born in Palestine and spent a considerable part of his life there, gives Ἰά (Ia) and Ἰάβε (Iabe) and explains Ἰάβε as meaning He who was and is and always exists.[75] (Pseudo-)Jerome (4th/5th century),[76] (tetragrammaton) can be read Iaho; Theodoret (d. c. 457) writes Ἰαώ (Iao);[77] he also reports[78] that the Samaritans say Ἰαβέ or Ἰαβαί (both pronounced at that time /ja'vε/), while the Jews say Ἀϊά (Aia).[14] (The latter is probably not יהוה but אהיה Ehyeh = "I am " or "I will be", Exod. 3:14 which the Jews counted among the names of God.) Jacob of Edessa (died 708),[79] Jehjeh; Jerome (died 420)[80] speaks of certain Greek writers who misunderstood the Hebrew letters יהוה (read right-to-left) as the Greek letters ΠΙΠΙ (read left-to-right), thus changing YHWH to pipi. A window featuring the Hebrew tetragrammaton יְהֹוָה in Karlskirche, Vienna Peshitta Edit The Peshitta (Syriac translation), probably in the second century,[81] uses the word "Lord" (ܡܳܪܝܳܐ, pronounced moryo) for the Tetragrammaton.[82] Vulgate Edit The Vulgate (Latin translation) made from the Hebrew in the 4th century CE,[83] uses the word Dominus ("Lord"), a translation of the Hebrew word Adonai, for the tetragrammaton.[82] The Vulgate translation, though made not from the Septuagint but from the Hebrew text, did not depart from the practice used in the Septuagint. Thus, for most of its history, Christianity's translations of the Scriptures have used equivalents of Adonai to represent the tetragrammaton. Only at about the beginning of the 16th century did Christian translations of the Bible appear with transliterations of the tetragrammaton.[84][85] Usage in religious traditions Edit Judaism Edit Main article: Genizah Especially due to the existence of the Mesha Stele, the Jahwist tradition found in Exod. 3:15, and ancient Hebrew and Greek texts, biblical scholars widely hold that the tetragrammaton and other names of God were spoken by the ancient Israelites and their neighbours.[13][86][87]:40 Some time after the destruction of Solomon's Temple, the spoken use of God's name as it was written ceased among the people, even though knowledge of the pronunciation was perpetuated in rabbinic schools.[14] The Talmud relays this occurred after the death of Simeon the Just (either Simon I or his great-great-grandson Simon II).[88] Philo calls it ineffable, and says that it is lawful for those only whose ears and tongues are purified by wisdom to hear and utter it in a holy place (that is, for priests in the Temple). In another passage, commenting on Lev. xxiv. 15 seq.: "If any one, I do not say should blaspheme against the Lord of men and gods, but should even dare to utter his name unseasonably, let him expect the penalty of death."[14] Rabbinic sources suggest that the name of God was pronounced only once a year, by the high priest, on the Day of Atonement.[89] Others, including Maimonides,[90] claim that the name was pronounced daily in the liturgy of the Temple in the priestly benediction of worshipp